{"title":"Physics","description":"","products":[{"product_id":"laws-of-motion-full-set","title":"Laws of Motion Bundle","description":"\u003cscript\u003e\n\/\/ Replace the bundle url with the correct bundle landing page url\nwindow.location.href = 'https:\/\/2046printshop.myshopify.com\/a\/bundles\/laws-of-motion-bundle-68zz';\n\u003c\/script\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eNewton’s laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces. 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Forms of electromagnetic radiation include visible light, radio waves, gamma rays and X-rays.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearchers are continuously investigating how electromagnetic forces and charged particles interact with each others. Science has described electromagnetic forces of attraction and repulsion, as well as how electric and magnetic fields are generated.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMaxwell takes the next steps\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJames Clerk Maxwell’s iconic work on electromagnetic radiation defined, for the first time, a universe driven by continuous energy fields. It is based on previous research by Michael Faraday, who showed how electric energy could be converted into magnetic energy and vice versa.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the time, Faraday’s research wasn’t considered groundbreaking and only a few scientists were inspired by his findings. Maxwell was one of those scientists, and in 1956, he published a paper that compared Faraday’s the lines of force to the flow of a liquid.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell next major paper, published in 1865, contained the first complete set of equations that expressed magnetism and electricity in terms of fields. The paper calculated the speed of electromagnetic waves through air using the only available data at the time. Maxwell also concluded that light is in fact an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMaxwell’s equations\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell’s equations are four fairly complicated partial differential equations.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey describe how electric and magnetic fields disperse, interact, and how they are affected by physical objects. Two of the equations explain how the fields can vary in space as a consequence of their origin, i.e. how electric fields coming from electric charges and magnetic fields that don’t come from magnetic monopoles can vary. The other two explain how the electric and magnetic fields orbit their source, i.e. how a magnetic field revolves around electric currents and shifting electric fields and how an electric field revolves around shifting magnetic fields.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt their core, the equations describe how a flow of electric current will generate a magnetic field and if the current flow varies with time, it will create an electric field. The equations also reveal that separated charges create an electric field, and if this is also changes over time, it will induce to a propagating electric field, which then creates a magnetic field.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe legacy of Maxwell’s equations\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell’s work shifted the focus of physics away from the Newtonian model, ultimately having a profound impact on later work and our modern world.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor his groundbreaking theory of Special Relativity, Albert Einstein gave a large amount of credit to Maxwell’s work. Einstein’s theory says the speed of light is constant, contradicting Newton’s theory that an observer moving toward a light source would see the speed of light increase.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecial Relativity was laid out as a field theory and it expands on the ideas originally laid out by Maxwell. Einstein called Maxwell’s work “the most profound and the most fruitful (change) that physics has experienced since the time of Newton.”\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaxwell’s equations can also be seen in many different applications today. The communications industry owes a major debt to Maxwell, whose equations defined radio, television and microwave communications. Infra-red telescopes based on Maxwell’s equations have allowed us to peer into the deepest recesses of the universe. And, Einstein’s work with nuclear power can be tracked back to the iconic set of equations.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Art Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42737276125384,"sku":"rad1824","price":40.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true},{"title":"Art Print \/ 24 x 36 in.","offer_id":42684081864904,"sku":"2046-ID-3090C","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true},{"title":"Screen Print \/ 16 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147485647048,"sku":"2046-ID-3090","price":40.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":false}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Electromagnetic-Radiation_1.jpg?v=1660222281"},{"product_id":"electromagnetic-induction","title":"Electromagnetic Induction","description":"\u003cp\u003eUsed in everything from electrical generators to motors, electromagnetic induction describes how a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current, and conversely how an electric current generates a surrounding magnetic field.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe most common application of electromagnetic induction is the generation of electricity; when a generator or turbine passes a coil of wire in and out of a magnetic field. Magnetic field lines from the magnet cause electrons in the wire to flow, \u003cem\u003einducing\u003c\/em\u003e an electric current.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor electromagnetic induction to occur in this situation, the conductor, a section of wire, must be perpendicular to the magnetic field lines in order to have maximum pressure on electrons in the wire. The direction the current flows is established by the direction of the field lines and by the direction the wire is traveling in the field.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a generator, a loop of wire is rotated in a magnetic field, and since the direction of the magnetic field changes as the wire rotates, the direction of current changes, revering every half turn. This constantly reversing current is what we know as alternating current (AC).\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eHistory \u0026amp; Faraday’s Law\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was definitively described by Michael Faraday in the 1830s. The English scientist held a public demonstration on August 29, 1831 that involved wrapping two wires around an iron ring, with each wire wrapped on opposite sides of the ring. After connecting one wire to an instrument designed to detect an electric current, Faraday showed his audience that sending a current through one wire caused a current to flow in the other wire.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current flow in the second wire was triggered by the current first wire, which was wrapped around the iron ring, creating an electromagnet. That electromagnet then induces a current in the second wire. Later, Faraday would discover that sliding a magnetic bar in an out of a coil of wire could also trigger an electric current.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFaraday’s experiments with electromagnetic induction inspired what we now know as Faraday’s Law of Induction. The basic law of electromagnetism says the induced voltage in a circuit is relative to the pace of change over time of the magnetic flux through that circuit. To put it differently, the faster the magnetic field shifts, the higher will be the voltage in the circuit. The direction of the shift in the magnetic field establishes the direction of the current.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe voltage generated can be boosted by increasing the quantity of loops in the circuit. With two loops in a coil, it generates double the voltage of one loop, and with three loops it would be three times as much and so on. This is why industrial generators have many, many coils – to generate a high level of power.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to laying the theoretical foundation for modern society, Faraday’s law was later incorporated into Maxwell’s equations. 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In light bulbs, for example, the electrons are passed to a material or medium that offers some resistance to the charge, causing it to heat up and glow.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth AC and DC can power our lives, but AC is the type or current we mostly rely on.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eA brief history\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChampioned by Edison, DC was the dominant form of current until Tesla, a former Edison protégé, and Westinghouse began a serious push for AC adoption. Sensing a threat to his highly-lucrative DC-based power business, Edison started a campaign to smear AC. He distributed propaganda proclaiming that AC was more hazardous, and even staged public electrocutions of animals using the competing form of current to show people they would be bringing something deadly into their homes.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite Edison’s best efforts, AC adoption became a foregone conclusion when Westinghouse and Tesla put a city-illuminating AC power plant at the bottom of Niagara Falls.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eHow AC power is generated\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the standard way of generating AC power, a loop of wire is rotated within a magnetic field. The wire loop can be rotated, and therefore power generated, by a number of means: a wind, steam, water, etc. This rotation creates a current along the wire.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the wire spins, it periodically enters and exits both a north and a south magnetic polarity. This causes the voltage and current to go back and forth on the wire, like water flowing back and forth in loop of connected pipes.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eMeasuring AC power\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn electrical current can be measured with a device called an oscilloscope. When the device is used to measure an alternating current, it shows a waveform that represents the voltage of a current over time. So, for instance, the voltage on an alternative current might oscillate between 170 and -170 volts.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cycle of current switching directions is known as frequency and it is measured in Hertz (Hz). Currents that cycle more frequently during a particular time period, like cycles per second, are said to have a greater frequency. AC power cycles 60 times per second in the US.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe AC we used everyday appears as a curvy sine wave in an oscilloscope. However, this isn’t the only type of wave. Some digital devices might use a square waveform and some audio equipment generated a triangle waveform.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe advantages of AC\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt's less expensive and easier to make devices for AC power. It is cheaper because you can boost and lower AC current very readily. Possibly the biggest benefit of AC is the ability to use high voltages with small currents to minimize power loss that occurs when power is transmitted over long distances.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDC has been used to send power, but until some more recent advancements, DC power transmission was known to lose a great deal of energy. Traditionally, more effort has had to be put into sending DC power over long distances.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDC is still very much a part of our lives. 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Ivory \/ L","offer_id":53892792484204,"sku":"9768450","price":32.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true},{"title":"Garment Dyed Heavyweight \/ Ivory \/ XL","offer_id":53892792516972,"sku":"8552997","price":32.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true},{"title":"Garment Dyed Heavyweight \/ Ivory \/ 2XL","offer_id":53892792549740,"sku":"7809155","price":33.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true},{"title":"Garment Dyed Heavyweight \/ Ivory \/ 3XL","offer_id":53892792582508,"sku":"9127480","price":33.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/files\/LHC_2.0_Navy.png?v=1757452340"},{"product_id":"relativity-pair","title":"Relativity Bundle","description":"\u003cscript\u003e\n\/\/ Replace the bundle url with the correct bundle landing page url\nwindow.location.href = 'https:\/\/2046printshop.myshopify.com\/a\/bundles\/relativity-bundle-68y2';\n\u003c\/script\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003ePublished by Albert Einstein in 1905,  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French Paper – Kraft Tone\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur universe was created about 14 billion years ago when all known matter expanded from an infinitesimally small point, into a massive three-dimensional space.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReferred to as inflation, this rapid growth of space was followed by particles clumping together into the bigger pieces of matter we know today, like planets and stars.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the galaxy-filled sphere of space-time we know as our universe may not be the only one. Many highly-respected theoretical physicists have been arguing that our universe is one of many unique universes, a scenario also known as a multiverse.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFour levels of multiverses\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThose who argue in favor of a multiverse describe four different scenarios where it can exist.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a Level I multiverse, although rapid inflation in our part of existence has stopped, it is still occurring in other, more remote parts of space. In these areas, new universes “bubble up” and inflate. Hence, we live in just one of many touching universe bubbles.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Level II multiverse takes a Level I multiverse and adds the assumption that there are many different laws of nature. This means quantities we call constants of nature, such as Newton’s gravitational constant, take different values in different bubble types.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Level III multiverse is probably the one best known to science fiction fans. In this scenario, events unfold in every possible combination, resulting in alternate timelines and alternate realities. So, in one universe you might be President of the United States and in other you might be homeless and destitute.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased in alternate mathematical structures, the Level IV multiverse is similar to a Level II multiverse in that it takes into account different laws of nature. However, Level IV goes a step further by incorporating the possibility that there are entirely different sets of laws based in all mathematical possibilities.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eThe cases against each level of multiverse\u003c\/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot every physicist buys into the theory that the multiverse exists. In fact, there has been a raging debate in recent year over its existence.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenerally speaking, the case against the possibility of a multiverse can be made either through progress in the mathematics behind a theory or new experimental data that disagrees with theoretical predictions.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA compelling case against a Level I multiverse could be made by questioning inflation. This could be done by disproving the theory that space can be stretched out indefinitely. In fact, we cannot, thus far, experimentally prove anything in the universe goes on forever. While disproving inflation would also eliminate the possibility of a Level II multiverse, another way to challenge the scenario would be to show that there is only one possible set of laws of nature.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Level III multiverse is based on the Schrödinger equation, which describes how a system of atoms and subatomic particles can achieve quantum superposition of two or more non-interacting branches, or they are split into many \"worlds\". If experimental evidence were to show a breakdown of the Schrödinger equation, it would eliminate the possibility of a Level III multiverse. The Schrödinger equation is currently being tested through the effort to develop quantum computers.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSince the Level IV multiverse is based on every mathematical possibility, the scenario could be disproven by finding a physical phenomenon that math cannot describe.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLinks\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"http:\/\/blogs.scientificamerican.com\/guest-blog\/are-parallel-universes-unscientific-nonsense-insider-tips-for-criticizing-the-multiverse\/\"\u003ehttp:\/\/blogs.scientificamerican.com\/guest-blog\/are-parallel-universes-unscientific-nonsense-insider-tips-for-criticizing-the-multiverse\/\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/multiverse-the-case-for-parallel-universe\/\"\u003ehttp:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/multiverse-the-case-for-parallel-universe\/\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"http:\/\/www.space.com\/32728-parallel-universes.html\"\u003ehttp:\/\/www.space.com\/32728-parallel-universes.html\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 16 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147551641800,"sku":"2046-ID-1000246","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":false}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Multi-verse_1.jpg?v=1660224441"},{"product_id":"supersymmetry","title":"Supersymmetry","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e16″ x 24″\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHand-made screen print\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #1\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e3 colors on 100 lb. Cougar Natural\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupersymmetry\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Standard Model of particle physics does a great job of explaining how the Universe is put together around us, but it doesn’t explain everything.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe idea of supersymmetry fills in the holes of the Standard Model, and it is the only known mathematical symmetry that can be added to the symmetries of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity without producing equations inconsistent with the known Universe.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are two types of the most basic particles known to man. Fermions are the particles primarily responsible for providing mass and bosons are the particles responsible for the force interactions in the Universe.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupersymmetry says every single fermion and boson has one or more superpartners, such that the superpartner of any fermion is a boson and vice versa. However, known particles don’t have the theoretical properties of superpartner. This means that for every known particle, there is a currently-unknown particle that is its superpartner. Superpartners have identical interactions with other particles and identical masses.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the fact that we haven’t discovered these superpartner particles, that hasn’t stopped particle physicists from naming them. For bosons, photon has a photino, gluons have gluinos, Higgs have Higgsinos and so on. Fermions have much, much more complicated names.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese superpartners don’t exist in the world as we know it, and acknowledging their presence at this point would highly complicate the world of chemistry. For instance, if the superpartner for an electron, a selectron, with the same charge and mass, were to exist, it would mean considering atoms with electrons as well as atoms with selectrons. This would throw the periodic table into chaos as it would mean countless new kinds of atoms.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSo what is the point of all this then, if supersymmetry can’t exist in world? Why bother adding it to Einstein’s symmetries and set up a naming system?\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to theory, supersymmetry does exist, it is just hidden from our view. Calculations have shown that if the superpartners of all known particles are extremely heavy, too heavy for scientists to have generated them in the lab. However, the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland is expected, based on calculations, to produce superpartners.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearchers at the massive international particle physics project did have a major breakthrough with respect to supersymmetry when they confirmed the existence of the Higgs boson in 2013.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCalculations had determined that Higgs should be a very light particle. However, studies have also found interactions with known particles make Higgs very heavy. Supersymmetry, with its very heavy superpartners, solves this problem – allowing for Higgs to be very light.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs for the lightest superpartner, scientists have predicted it to be steady, electrically neutral and to interact weakly with known particles. These are precisely the characteristics essential for dark matter, thought to make up most of the matter in the universe and to hold galaxies together.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Standard Model by itself does not supply an explanation for dark matter. Supersymmetry is a construction that builds upon the Standard Model’s strong basis to develop a more vibrant picture of our world. Maybe the reason we still have many of these questions on intricacies of the universe is due to the fact we have only seen one half of the picture.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLinks:\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https:\/\/profmattstrassler.com\/articles-and-posts\/some-speculative-theoretical-ideas-for-the-lhc\/supersymmetry\/supersymmetry-what-is-it\/\"\u003ehttps:\/\/profmattstrassler.com\/articles-and-posts\/some-speculative-theoretical-ideas-for-the-lhc\/supersymmetry\/supersymmetry-what-is-it\/\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"http:\/\/home.cern\/about\/physics\/supersymmetry\"\u003ehttp:\/\/home.cern\/about\/physics\/supersymmetry\u003c\/a\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 16 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147552100552,"sku":"2046-ID-1000253","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Supersymetry_1.jpg?v=1660224455"},{"product_id":"darkmatter","title":"Dark Matter","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHand-made screen print\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 200\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e3 colors with UV Red ink – Black light required for print to “glow”\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeenah Epic Black 100 lb. paper\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDark Matter\u003cbr\u003e The universe is filled with matter: You see it all around you.\u003cbr\u003e Invisible to the human eye, dark matter is a type of matter that is very different from the “ordinary” matter we know so well. Many scientists say dark matter exists because we can see the electromagnetic effects it has on stars and galaxies in the depths of space. For instance, the laws of physics tell us that the stable rotation of galaxies cannot be solely explained by the effects of visible matter. Dark matter is also determined to be responsible for the light-bending phenomenon known as gravitational lensing and the speeds at which some stars in our galaxy appear to rotate.\u003cbr\u003e Most importantly, according to theory, the Milky Way would not exist without dark matter. With approximately five times the mass of visible matter with the same size, the collective gravitational pull of dark matter is said to have facilitated the formation of the Milky Way’s structure.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Problem with Calling It “Dark Matter”\u003cbr\u003e The words ‘dark matter’ may immediately bring to mind black holes. However, dark matter is not necessarily associated with the absence of light. Because light can pass through it, dark matter is actually transparent.\u003cbr\u003e Truth be told, scientists probably know more about what dark matter isn’t, than what it is. Brown stars, white dwarf stars, neutron stars and black holes could all be dark matter. Or none of them could be. In fact, many researchers have said each of these objects is too rare to account for all the observed effects of dark matter.\u003cbr\u003e Scientists also aren’t sure if dark matter is comprised of particles we already know, or ‘dark matter particles’ that we know nothing about. It’s possible the on-going particle experiments at CERN will eventually reveal evidence of dark matter particles.\u003cbr\u003e In light of the absence of definitive proof, a few maverick scientists have offered a theory that does away with dark matter entirely, called Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND). Basically, the theory says the laws of physics, as we know them, do not apply on the grandest scales. MOND theory proponents say describing dark matter has been so difficult because it simply doesn’t exist. Critics of MOND say it does not sufficiently explain the universe.\u003cbr\u003e Those backing the MOND theory were likely buoyed by a 2020 study from researchers at the University of Bonn in Germany that found galaxies as we know them are capable of forming without dark matter.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDetecting Dark Matter\u003cbr\u003e Researchers have constructed extremely sensitive, peculiar systems to try to find physical evidence of dark matter. These detection systems include pools of liquid xenon located deep underground and telescopes trying to find dark matter particles breaking down into gamma rays and other phenomena we can measure. Part of the mission for the Hadron Collider is the detection of particles that can be associated with dark matter.\u003cbr\u003e Scientists are also planning on using the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope to detect evidence of dark matter. When two particles of dark matter particles collide, they theoretically release a gamma ray and the Fermi telescope could potentially recognize the gamma ray evidence of these collisions. Launched in 2008, Fermi has yet to detect evidence of collisions between dark matter particles.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSources:\u003cbr\u003e https:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/audience\/forstudents\/9-12\/features\/what-is-dark-matter.html\u003cbr\u003e https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/what-is-dark-matter1\/\u003cbr\u003e http:\/\/www.astronomy.com\/news\/2018\/09\/what-is-dark-matter\u003cbr\u003e https:\/\/www.uni-bonn.de\/news\/030-2020\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147563045064,"sku":"2046-ID-1033458","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Dark-Matter_1.jpg?v=1660224940"},{"product_id":"darkenergy","title":"Dark Energy","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHand-made screen print\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 150\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e3 colors with UV Red ink – Black light required for print to “glow”\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeenah Epic Black 100 lb. paper\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDark Energy\u003cbr\u003e Dark Energy is a theoretical kind of energy that exerts a repulsive force; the reverse effect of gravity. We are unable to directly observe dark energy, but we are able to confidently infer its existence based on observations of astronomical bodies and clusters.\u003cbr\u003e Two major discoveries are essential to the fundamental concept of dark energy. In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble was researching supernovae when he came to the conclusion that the universe is growing in size. Since then, researchers have tried to ascertain just how quickly this expansion is decreasing due to the decelerating effects of gravity. However, two independent teams of researchers working in the 1990s discovered the expansion of universe wasn't decreasing: The expansion was actually accelerating! The force driving this acceleration was dubbed \"dark energy.\"\u003cbr\u003e After calculating the amount energy required to overcome the gravity of known matter in the universe, researchers established that dark energy comprises approximately 68 percent of the universe. Known matter comprises less than 5 percent of the universe and the rest of the universe is made up of mysterious \"dark matter\", which appears to be completely unrelated to dark energy.\u003cbr\u003e In his famous theory of general relativity, Albert Einstein initially included a cosmological constant to take into account what he thought was the static nature of the universe. But after Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, Einstein removed the constant and thought of it as one of his biggest mistakes.\u003cbr\u003e However, Einstein's miscalculation may be the best way to describe dark energy. Einstein’s constant suggests that space can have its own energy. It also suggests that as more space is created, more dark energy would also be created, increasingly counteracting gravity.\u003cbr\u003e Even though Einstein's constant matches observations, researchers still aren't sure why it does.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProblems with Dark Energy Theory\u003cbr\u003e While dark energy is a widely accepted concept, not everybody is onboard and alternative explanations for dark energy have gained traction.\u003cbr\u003e One of the major hurdles is the staggering disparity between the expected power of dark energy, and its detected strength. Calculations based on quantum field theory produce a strength value that is 10120 times bigger than the observations tell us. If dark energy were as strong as calculations indicate, the universe would grow so fast, individual atoms would be pulled apart from one another, making stars incapable of forming.\u003cbr\u003e Clearly, there is a massive fundamental flaw in the theory behind dark energy. This disparity has led some researchers to put forward other, fairly controversial alternatives, or even refuse to acknowledge the existence of dark energy.\u003cbr\u003e Some researchers have proposed that our observations of the universe are skewed because the Milky Way is located within an area of low density that was created by a density wave. Possibly caused by the Big Bang, this cosmic wave in space-time would have left a low-density ripple that is tens of millions of light-years wide. While theoretically possible, this perspective-altering difference in space-time would defy the Copernican principle that says the universe is largely homogenous.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSources:\u003cbr\u003e http:\/\/astronomy.swin.edu.au\/cosmos\/D\/Dark+Energy\u003cbr\u003e https:\/\/www.space.com\/20929-dark-energy.html\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147564191944,"sku":"2046-ID-1033468","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Dark-Energy_1.jpg?v=1660224957"},{"product_id":"inflation","title":"Inflation","description":"\u003cp\u003eTime begins:\u003cbr\u003e Most cosmologists agree that the universe begins as a hot, dense point. It’s just a fraction of the size of an atom, yet so dense it contains everything that exists in the universe: matter, energy and space. In the beginning, the fundamental forces of physics— gravity, strong force, weak force, and electromagnetism—are all united into one force.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003csup\u003e−43\u003c\/sup\u003e second:\u003cbr\u003e Gravity separates from the other fundamental forces. The first subatomic particles and antiparticles appear.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003csup\u003e−36\u003c\/sup\u003e seconds to 10\u003csup\u003e−32\u003c\/sup\u003e seconds:\u003cbr\u003e Strong nuclear force separates from the remaining fundamental forces, causing the universe to scale up at break-neck speed—from the fraction of the size of an atom to about the size of a softball.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003csup\u003e−12\u003c\/sup\u003e seconds to 10\u003csup\u003e−6\u003c\/sup\u003e seconds:\u003cbr\u003e The fundamental forces of physics are now distinct from each other, behaving just as they do today. At this point, subatomic particle and antiparticle pairs are constantly being created and destroyed. But not everything is destroyed because there are slightly more particles than antiparticles.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003csup\u003e−6\u003c\/sup\u003e seconds to 3 minutes:\u003cbr\u003e Some of the surviving particles become protons and neutrons. The other surviving particles are leptons, which collide with antiparticles and release photon energy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3 minutes to 20 minutes:\u003cbr\u003e The expanding universe cools just enough for the nuclei of the basic elements hydrogen and helium to form.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e380,000 years:\u003cbr\u003e Hydrogen and helium atoms form. High-energy photons begin to travel freely through space and are detectable today as cosmic background radiation.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100 million years:\u003cbr\u003e Gravity begins to pull hydrogen and helium atoms together to form stars.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1 billion years:\u003cbr\u003e Matter clusters into billions of galaxies where heat and pressure create new chemical elements. When stars explode, the elements inside them become the building blocks of planets.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5 - 9 billion years:\u003cbr\u003e The sun forms by pulling the debris of exploded stars toward itself.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.2 billion years:\u003cbr\u003e Earth takes shape.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.2 billion years:\u003cbr\u003e The first living organisms form.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePresent day, 13.7 billion years\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Art Print \/ 36 x 24 in.","offer_id":42688096075976,"sku":"infltngp2436","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Inflation.jpg?v=1660225004"},{"product_id":"darkmatterset","title":"Dark Matter Bundle","description":"\u003cscript\u003e\n\/\/ Replace the bundle url with the correct bundle landing page url\nwindow.location.href = 'https:\/\/2046printshop.myshopify.com\/a\/bundles\/dark-matter-bundle-68xv';\n\u003c\/script\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eBoth our Dark Matter and Dark Energy prints at a discounted price!\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"woocommerce-product-details__short-description\"\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHand-made screen print\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #1\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e3 colors with UV Red ink\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeenah Epic Black 100 lb. paper\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003c\/div\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Default Title","offer_id":42147565306056,"sku":"2046-ID-1034203","price":81.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Dark-Matters_1.png?v=1660225029"},{"product_id":"lawsofthermodynamics1","title":"Laws of Thermodynamics 01","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″ Hand-made screen print poster\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e8.5″ x 11″ Art print text counterpart\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e100 lb. French Paper – Grey Grout\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eFirst Law of Thermodynamics\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThermodynamics is an area of physics that deal with heat energy and how it relates to other kinds of energy. Specifically, it explains how thermal energy is modified to and from other types of energy, as well as how it can affect matter.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe First Law of Thermodynamics says heat is a kind of energy, and therefore, thermodynamic operations are governed by the law of conservation of energy: Thermal energy can't be created or destroyed, it can only be transformed or passed between systems.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first law also says change in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of additions and subtractions to the system. This is expressed by the equation:\u003cbr\u003e ΔU (change in internal energy) = Q (added heat) – W (work done by the system)\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScientifically speaking, energy falls into two different categories. One category includes energy on a macroscopic scale, such as the energy of a piston moving a fluid. The other category is on the atomic scale, involving the energy exchanged during atomic collisions.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTracking energy exchange at the atomic scale isn’t possible, but the energies of systems of atoms can be quantified as heat energy. For instance, when two pieces of metal are touching each other, the atoms of metal pieces collide with one another; on miniscule time frames, at a very small distances and at the rate of millions of times per second. We aren't capable of can’t tracking these collisions; however, the energy exchanged can be tracked as the amount of heat transferred.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eOpen, Closed, and Isolated Thermodynamic Systems\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThermodynamic systems are described as open, closed or isolated.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen systems are defined by a free exchange of heat energy and matter with their surroundings. A pot of boiling water is an open system because is radiates heat and releases steam into its surroundings.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClosed systems exchange heat with their surroundings but not matter. An unopened can of soda is a closed system that exchanges heat with its surroundings, but matter cannot enter or leave the can.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIsolated systems exchange neither heat nor matter with their surroundings. Although an isolated system is mostly theoretical in nature and impossible to achieve, a perfectly insulated thermos of would be an example of an isolated system. Astrophysicists do consider the universe to be an isolated system.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eApplications\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe most popular application of the First Law of Thermodynamics is the heat engine, which changes thermal energy into mechanical energy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA heat engine makes use of heat, volume and pressure of a fluid, typically a gas. When a fluid is heated, it expands in size. When a fluid is compressed, it increases the pressure of the system. If the compressed fluid is contained within the chamber of a movable piston, high pressure be used to drive the piston, which can then be utilized to do work.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProbably the most straightforward example of a heat engine, a steam engine uses combustion to heat a boiler that holds water, converting it into steam. The expanding water drives a piston, which then does mechanical work.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother common application of the First Law of Thermodynamics is the heat pump, which is exploits the same relationships as a heat engine. When a fluid expands, it cools and when it is compressed, it becomes hotter. Heated fluid can be used for warming purposes and cooled fluid can be used for cooling. Air conditioners and refrigerators use low-temperature refrigerant and heat exchanger coil to lower temperature of room or chamber. The refrigerant is circulated and compressed to release heat outside the closed system through another exchanger coil. This is why the exterior of a refrigerator or air conditioner feels warm near the hot exchanger coil.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSources:\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.livescience.com\/50881-first-law-thermodynamics.html\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.sciencelearn.org.nz\/resources\/241-heat-pumps-and-energy-transfer\u003c\/em\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147575300296,"sku":"2046-ID-1034716","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/THermodynamics-1-1.jpg?v=1660225249"},{"product_id":"laws-of-thermodynamics-00","title":"Laws of Thermodynamics 00","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″ Hand-made screen print poster\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e8.5″ x 11″ Art print text counterpart\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e100 lb. French Paper – Grey Grout\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eZeroth Law of Thermodynamics\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe scientific field of thermodynamics and the laws of thermodynamics all deal with the various aspects of heat energy and its interactions with matter.\u003cbr\u003e Established after the first three laws, the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is actually the fourth law to be developed. However, it was found to underpin all of the other established laws. So, instead of making it the First Law and renaming the others, it was dubbed the “Zeroth Law” and the other laws retained their names.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is actually an observation. It states that if two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, the first two system are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. Mathematically, this can be represented as: If A equals C, and B equals C, then A must also equal C.\u003cbr\u003e In general, the Zeroth Law describes thermal equilibrium; a balanced state that does not alter over the course of time. If two thermodynamic systems are in contact with each other to the degree that they can transfer heat between each other, but they do not, the Zeroth Law says that they are in thermal equilibrium.\u003cbr\u003e This equilibrium is quite common in everyday life. If you put a tray full of water into a freezer, eventually the water will freeze into ice and that ice will reach the same temperature as the air around it. At this point, the ice and the air in the freezer are in thermal equilibrium.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eSo, what is the point?\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe concept behind the Zeroth Law seems so obvious, it can appear trivial, even pointless. Ice in a freezer does not exchange heat with the air surrounding it. \u003cem\u003eSo, what exactly is the point of that observation?\u003c\/em\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Zeroth Law is significant because it lets us establish temperature as scientifically measurable and a universal property of matter. If something is scientifically measurable, then we can create mathematically based scales for it.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe popular temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Celsius were actually established long before the Zeroth Law was conceptualized. The problem with both Fahrenheit and even the more scientific Celsius is that they arbitrarily define the lowest possible ‘zero’ temperature, referred to as absolute zero.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a scientific laboratory, a measuring scale must have a zero point that isn't arbitrary. For instance, length, mass and time all have zero values, which all happen to be easily defined. Hence, a scale that measures heat energy must have a zero value, or a point at which there is zero heat energy. Because earlier scientists could not measure absolute zero, or even attain that temperature, they had to use other reference points for their scales, such as the freezing point of water.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, the Kelvin scale defines the bottom of a temperature scale as absolute zero and as a result, establishes temperature as a universal property of matter.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe concept of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics may seem trivial, but it lets us define temperature, and that allows us to quantify the other three laws of thermodynamics.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSources:\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.livescience.com\/50833-zeroth-law-thermodynamics.html\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=PE_zpk-EznQ\u003c\/em\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147575955656,"sku":"2046-ID-1034731","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Thermodynamics-0-1.jpg?v=1660225268"},{"product_id":"laws-of-thermodynamics-02","title":"Laws of Thermodynamics 02","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″ Hand-made screen print poster\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e8.5″ x 11″ Art print text counterpart\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e100 lb. French Paper – Grey Grout\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eSecond Law of Thermodynamics\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThermodynamics is the area of physics that deals with heat energy and how it relates to other kinds of energy. Specifically, it explains how thermal energy is modified to and from other types of energy, as well as how heat can affect matter.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe First Law of Thermodynamics describes how the energy of a thermodynamic system can be neither created nor destroyed. The Second Law describes how thermodynamic systems tend to evolve toward chaotic equilibrium. Like a pessimistic goth friend, the Second Law is all about inefficiency, deterioration and disorder.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the Second Law, the more that energy in a system is exchanged or altered, the more energy is wasted, making these processes irreversible. Simply put, the Second Law essentially says, “You can’t unscramble an egg once you’ve scrambled it.”\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn practical terms, this part of the law explains that heat energy can’t be completely converted into mechanical energy. Massive gas turbines are highly efficient at converting thousands of degrees of heat into electricity, yet they only release a mild warm breeze that doesn’t contain much thermal energy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Second Law also describes how a system moves toward equilibrium. For instance, if a hot object is placed next to a cold object, the hot object doesn’t get warmer and the cold object doesn’t get cooler. In this situation, heat energy flows from the hot item to the cold one until a state of equilibrium is reached.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eA Tendency to Increased Chaos\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Second Law of Thermodynamics largely deals with entropy – the amount of chaos or disorder within a thermodynamic system. With its molecules in a well-ordered crystal lattice, an ice cube has less entropy than a cloud of steam, which has water molecules moving in a highly unpredictable manner.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the Second Law, the change in entropy of a system is equal to the amount of heat change divided by the common temperature at the time when heat transfer occurred, or:\u003cbr\u003e dS = δQ\/T\u003cbr\u003e The Second Law also says the entropy of an isolated system (our universe) will always remain the same or increase, or:\u003cbr\u003e dS ≥0\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis second, unilateral part of the law imposes ‘the arrow of time’ on a thermodynamic system, meaning thermodynamic processes are not completely reversible. Steam from a boiling pan of water cannot form an equivalent block of ice. Hence: You cannot unscramble an egg.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003ePredicting the End of the Universe as We Know It\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Second Law of Thermodynamics also has implications for astrophysics, as it predicts that everything in the universe will ultimately be at the same temperature. This ‘heat death’ will occur in the very distant future and it represents the ultimate level of disorder. With everything at the same level of energy, work cannot be done and every atom in the universe will move about at random.\u003cbr\u003e Calculated to occur around 1026 years from now, everything in the universe will ultimately reach a temperature just 10-30 above absolute zero.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSources:\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.livescience.com\/50941-second-law-thermodynamics.html\u003c\/em\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003cem\u003ehttps:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/science\/2013\/dec\/01\/what-is-the-second-law-of-thermodynamics\u003c\/em\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"2046printshop-test-import-01","offers":[{"title":"Screen Print \/ 18 x 24 in.","offer_id":42147577200840,"sku":"2046-ID-1034732","price":45.0,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0604\/3041\/8120\/products\/Thermodynamics-2-2.jpg?v=1660225288"},{"product_id":"laws-of-thermodynamics-03","title":"Laws of Thermodynamics 03","description":"\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e18″ x 24″ Hand-made screen print poster\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e8.5″ x 11″ Art print text counterpart\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdition #2\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigned \u0026amp; Numbered edition of 100\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e100 lb. French Paper – Grey Grout\u003c\/li\u003e\n\u003c\/ul\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eThird Law of Thermodynamics\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThermodynamics is the area of physics that involves heat energy and the ways that it pertains to various kinds of energy. Specifically, it explains how thermal energy is modified to and from other types of energy, as well as how heat can affect matter.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe First Law of Thermodynamics describes how the energy of a thermodynamic system can be neither created nor destroyed. The Second Law describes how thermodynamic systems tend to evolve toward chaotic equilibrium. The Third Law of Thermodynamics describes the behavior of thermodynamic systems as they approach the lowest limits of energy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn essence, the first law suggest that the universe started with a designated amount of usable energy: energy that is capable of doing work or increasing internal temperature. Then, the second law describes the implications of the first law in greater detail. Specifically, the second law describes the transformation of the universe’s limited useful energy into unusable energy; chaos or disorder at the atomic level. Scientists measure unusable energy using a metric called entropy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the laws of thermodynamics, the universe is like a sink filled with dirty dishes. As more dishes are used, they are thrown into the sink and unless and the dishes are cleaned and organized, the disorder continues and increases. While some small-scale organization does occur in the universe when matter is formed, the progression of time is toward a universe that is more and more disordered.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first two laws elegantly lay out the progressive nature of thermal energy in the universe. The third law is basically included for completeness as it covers situations related to zero entropy. Specifically, the Third Law of Thermodynamics states that as the temperature of a system gets close to absolute zero, the entropy of a system become constant, meaning the change on entropy is zero.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003ch4\u003eThe Implications of Absolute Zero\u003c\/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe third law veers into the purely theoretical because scientists aren’t sure if the temperature of absolute zero (0 degrees Kelvin or -273.15 degrees Celsius) can even be achieved. The lowest measured temperature to date, found in to be in deep space, is 3 degrees Kelvin.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the third law, entropy change approaches zero as temperature approaches zero. However, because all matter includes some amount of disorder and some innate amount of heat, it cannot attain absolute zero. In theory, a perfect crystal would have zero disorder, and therefore could theoretically reach both absolute zero and zero entropy.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTheoretical physicists have also held that attaining absolute zero would require an infinite number of steps, meaning it is impossible. According to theory, absolute zero is an impossible temperature because it would mean a heat sink with 100 percent efficiency is possible, and this would imply that a perfectly efficient heat engine. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that a heat engine cannot be 100 percent efficient.\u003c\/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhysicists have likened efforts to achieve absolute zero in a system to efforts for travel at light speed. 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